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Doctors only started measuring body temperature 200 years ago – here’s why

The beginnings of measuring fever go back more than 400 years.

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3 years ago

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Dony Wardhana/Unsplash, FAL

Over the past year, fever thermometers have become omnipresent. Body temperature is taken in front of shops, at airports, even before visiting a museum – often with ultra-modern devices. So-called fever cameras or fever scanners can determine the body temperature even without contact. It might now seem obvious that fevers are connected to a high body temperature – in many cultures, the question “do you have a temperature?” is clear evidence of that – but this hasn’t always been the case.

Black and white historic portrait of a bearded man.
Sanctorio Sanctorius, 1609. Wikimedia Commons

The beginnings of measuring fever go back more than 400 years. At the turn of the 17th century, several scholars dealt with the development of thermometers. In London, Robert Fludd worked on an instrument to measure temperature. On the Italian peninsula, Galileo Galilei and his close friend Giovanni Francesco Sagredo were engaged in the same activity. So it cannot be clearly determined who invented the thermometer.

But historians agree that a particular member of Galileo’s Venetian circle of friends was the first to apply the instrument to medicine. This was the Venetian physician Sanctorio Sanctorius (1561 – 1636), who developed the first fever thermometers to determine his patients’ body heat.

This was a novelty. While today we trust in numbers and measurements, especially regarding medical issues, in Sanctorius’ times it was not thought that phenomena like health or disease could be recorded by numbers, let alone be measured. Rather, people relied on the experience of their physicians. Through regularly touching the foreheads of their patients, they gauged what kind and how bad the fever was.

The first body thermometer

Black and white illustration of a historic thermometer.
An illustration of Sanctorius’ thermoscope (on the right), a thermometer without a scale, 1626. © Wellcome Collection, CC BY

Sanctorius’ measurement and notion of fever did not tally with modern understandings. The Venetian physician made use of the thermal expansion of air in his thermometers, rather than liquids, which is what tends to be used in today’s traditional fever thermometers.

Since air does not expand and contract only due to changes in temperature, but also in atmospheric pressure, Sanctorius’ unsealed thermometers were sensitive to both. Therefore, any measurement of body heat with an instrument of Sanctorius’ type would be distorted by the influence of atmospheric pressure. This was realised a short time later. To avoid its influence, in later thermometers, air was replaced with a liquid sealed in a glass tube.

Sanctorius seems to have used his non-sealed air thermometers anyway. Galileo and Sagredo, who worked with similar types of thermometers outside of a medical context, realised that there were irregularities, but the phenomenon of atmospheric pressure and its effect was still unknown to them. From today’s perspective, such thermometers might seem not very helpful, but at the time these were the first instruments that could be used to obtain information about degrees of hot and cold without appealing to the human senses.

And although Sanctorius used the Latin term temperamentum, his concept of a “temperature” was very different from today’s. He adhered to the medical theory of the four humours, which assumed that human health depended on a balanced proportion of the four humours: blood, phlegm, yellow, and black bile. These humours were assigned to so-called primary qualities: hot, cold, moist and dry. Here, too, balance was crucial: if one of the primary qualities was too strong or too weak, it could cause diseases.

Diagram illustrating the associations of the four humours.
Diagram illustrating the four humours. Tom Lemmens, CC BY

So when Sanctorius used his fever thermometers, what he was trying to measure was certain degrees of hot and cold in his patients’ complexions, which he believed would reveal their individual mixtures of the four humours. In doing so, he wanted to determine “the quantity of diseases”, by which he meant the deviation of the body from its balanced, healthy state.

For a long time, the “quantity” of heat was considered to be only one of several parameters that allowed the physician to differentiate between healthy body heat and febrile heat. The latter was also characterised by qualitative aspects and could, for example, be “sharp” or “biting”. Not only the degree of heat was important but also its kind. What’s more, besides body heat, the pulse, respiration, the skin, and urine were all thought to indicate a fever’s character.

Thermometers in use

And so although the diagnosis and treatment of fever was a central preoccupation of the physicians of the Renaissance, Sanctorius’ thermometers did not find considerable application in daily medical practice because heightened temperature simply wasn’t considered the main determinant of a fever. To physicians at the time, the measurement of body heat was of secondary interest.

It was only in the 19th century that the fever thermometer came into general clinical use and found its way into the household. Today, fever is defined as elevated body temperature and seen as a symptom that can occur in different diseases.

Thermometer with red liquid interior on a neutral background.
A modern liquid thermometer, which works by the change in volume of a thermometric fluid, mostly coloured alcohol. MZinchenko/Shutterstock.com

As different as Sanctorius’ thermometers and his notions of fever are to our modern devices and our understanding of increased body temperature, they still give an important insight into the long path that preceded our modern fever measuring devices – devices that are icons of the current pandemic like hardly any others.

Teresa Hollerbach does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

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Shipping company files surprise Chapter 7 bankruptcy, liquidation

While demand for trucking has increased, so have costs and competition, which have forced a number of players to close.

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39 mins ago

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March 8, 2024

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The U.S. economy is built on trucks.

As a nation we have relatively limited train assets, and while in recent years planes have played an expanded role in moving goods, trucks still represent the backbone of how everything — food, gasoline, commodities, and pretty much anything else — moves around the country.

Related: Fast-food chain closes more stores after Chapter 11 bankruptcy

"Trucks moved 61.1% of the tonnage and 64.9% of the value of these shipments. The average shipment by truck was 63 miles compared to an average of 640 miles by rail," according to the U.S. Bureau of Transportation Statistics 2023 numbers.

But running a trucking company has been tricky because the largest players have economies of scale that smaller operators don't. That puts any trucking company that's not a massive player very sensitive to increases in gas prices or drops in freight rates.

And that in turn has led a number of trucking companies, including Yellow Freight, the third-largest less-than-truckload operator; J.J. & Sons Logistics, Meadow Lark, and Boateng Logistics, to close while freight brokerage Convoy shut down in October.

Aside from Convoy, none of these brands are household names. but with the demand for trucking increasing, every company that goes out of business puts more pressure on those that remain, which contributes to increased prices.

Demand for trucking has continued to increase.

Image source: Shutterstock

Another freight company closes and plans to liquidate

Not every bankruptcy filing explains why a company has gone out of business. In the trucking industry, multiple recent Chapter 7 bankruptcies have been tied to lawsuits that pushed otherwise successful companies into insolvency.

In the case of TBL Logistics, a Virginia-based national freight company, its Feb. 29 bankruptcy filing in U.S. Bankruptcy Court for the Western District of Virginia appears to be death by too much debt.

"In its filing, TBL Logistics listed its assets and liabilities as between $1 million and $10 million. The company stated that it has up to 49 creditors and maintains that no funds will be available for unsecured creditors once it pays administrative fees," Freightwaves reported.

The company's owners, Christopher and Melinda Bradner, did not respond to the website's request for comment.

Before it closed, TBL Logistics specialized in refrigerated and oversized loads. The company described its business on its website.

"TBL Logistics is a non-asset-based third-party logistics freight broker company providing reliable and efficient transportation solutions, management, and storage for businesses of all sizes. With our extensive network of carriers and industry expertise, we streamline the shipping process, ensuring your goods reach their destination safely and on time."

The world has a truck-driver shortage

The covid pandemic forced companies to consider their supply chain in ways they never had to before. Increased demand showed the weakness in the trucking industry and drew attention to how difficult life for truck drivers can be.

That was an issue HBO's John Oliver highlighted on his "Last Week Tonight" show in October 2022. In the episode, the host suggested that the U.S. would basically start to starve if the trucking industry shut down for three days.

"Sorry, three days, every produce department in America would go from a fully stocked market to an all-you-can-eat raccoon buffet," he said. "So it’s no wonder trucking’s a huge industry, with more than 3.5 million people in America working as drivers, from port truckers who bring goods off ships to railyards and warehouses, to long-haul truckers who move them across the country, to 'last-mile' drivers, who take care of local delivery." 

The show highlighted how many truck drivers face low pay, difficult working conditions and, in many cases, crushing debt.

"Hundreds of thousands of people become truck drivers every year. But hundreds of thousands also quit. Job turnover for truckers averages over 100%, and at some companies it’s as high as 300%, meaning they’re hiring three people for a single job over the course of a year. And when a field this important has a level of job satisfaction that low, it sure seems like there’s a huge problem," Oliver shared.

The truck-driver shortage is not just a U.S. problem; it's a global issue, according to IRU.org.

"IRU’s 2023 driver shortage report has found that over three million truck driver jobs are unfilled, or 7% of total positions, in 36 countries studied," the global transportation trade association reported. 

"With the huge gap between young and old drivers growing, it will get much worse over the next five years without significant action."

Related: Veteran fund manager picks favorite stocks for 2024

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Wendy’s has a new deal for daylight savings time haters

The Daylight Savings Time promotion slashes prices on breakfast.

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March 8, 2024

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Daylight Savings Time, or the practice of advancing clocks an hour in the spring to maximize natural daylight, is a controversial practice because of the way it leaves many feeling off-sync and tired on the second Sunday in March when the change is made and one has one less hour to sleep in.

Despite annual "Abolish Daylight Savings Time" think pieces and online arguments that crop up with unwavering regularity, Daylight Savings in North America begins on March 10 this year.

Related: Coca-Cola has a new soda for Diet Coke fans

Tapping into some people's very vocal dislike of Daylight Savings Time, fast-food chain Wendy's  (WEN)  is launching a daylight savings promotion that is jokingly designed to make losing an hour of sleep less painful and encourage fans to order breakfast anyway.

Wendy's has recently made a big push to expand its breakfast menu.

Image source: Wendy's.

Promotion wants you to compensate for lost sleep with cheaper breakfast

As it is also meant to drive traffic to the Wendy's app, the promotion allows anyone who makes a purchase of $3 or more through the platform to get a free hot coffee, cold coffee or Frosty Cream Cold Brew.

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Available during the Wendy's breakfast hours of 6 a.m. and 10:30 a.m. (which, naturally, will feel even earlier due to Daylight Savings), the deal also allows customers to buy any of its breakfast sandwiches for $3. Items like the Sausage, Egg and Cheese Biscuit, Breakfast Baconator and Maple Bacon Chicken Croissant normally range in price between $4.50 and $7.

The choice of the latter is quite wide since, in the years following the pandemic, Wendy's has made a concerted effort to expand its breakfast menu with a range of new sandwiches with egg in them and sweet items such as the French Toast Sticks. The goal was both to stand out from competitors with a wider breakfast menu and increase traffic to its stores during early-morning hours.

Wendy's deal comes after controversy over 'dynamic pricing'

But last month, the chain known for the square shape of its burger patties ignited controversy after saying that it wanted to introduce "dynamic pricing" in which the cost of many of the items on its menu will vary depending on the time of day. In an earnings call, chief executive Kirk Tanner said that electronic billboards would allow restaurants to display various deals and promotions during slower times in the early morning and late at night.

Outcry was swift and Wendy's ended up walking back its plans with words that they were "misconstrued" as an intent to surge prices during its most popular periods.

While the company issued a statement saying that any changes were meant as "discounts and value offers" during quiet periods rather than raised prices during busy ones, the reputational damage was already done since many saw the clarification as another way to obfuscate its pricing model.

"We said these menuboards would give us more flexibility to change the display of featured items," Wendy's said in its statement. "This was misconstrued in some media reports as an intent to raise prices when demand is highest at our restaurants."

The Daylight Savings Time promotion, in turn, is also a way to demonstrate the kinds of deals Wendy's wants to promote in its stores without putting up full-sized advertising or posters for what is only relevant for a few days.

Related: Veteran fund manager picks favorite stocks for 2024

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United Airlines adds new flights to faraway destinations

The airline said that it has been working hard to "find hidden gem destinations."

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2 hours ago

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March 8, 2024

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Since countries started opening up after the pandemic in 2021 and 2022, airlines have been seeing demand soar not just for major global cities and popular routes but also for farther-away destinations.

Numerous reports, including a recent TripAdvisor survey of trending destinations, showed that there has been a rise in U.S. traveler interest in Asian countries such as Japan, South Korea and Vietnam as well as growing tourism traction in off-the-beaten-path European countries such as Slovenia, Estonia and Montenegro.

Related: 'No more flying for you': Travel agency sounds alarm over risk of 'carbon passports'

As a result, airlines have been looking at their networks to include more faraway destinations as well as smaller cities that are growing increasingly popular with tourists and may not be served by their competitors.

The Philippines has been popular among tourists in recent years.

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United brings back more routes, says it is committed to 'finding hidden gems'

This week, United Airlines  (UAL)  announced that it will be launching a new route from Newark Liberty International Airport (EWR) to Morocco's Marrakesh. While it is only the country's fourth-largest city, Marrakesh is a particularly popular place for tourists to seek out the sights and experiences that many associate with the country — colorful souks, gardens with ornate architecture and mosques from the Moorish period.

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"We have consistently been ahead of the curve in finding hidden gem destinations for our customers to explore and remain committed to providing the most unique slate of travel options for their adventures abroad," United's SVP of Global Network Planning Patrick Quayle, said in a press statement.

The new route will launch on Oct. 24 and take place three times a week on a Boeing 767-300ER  (BA)  plane that is equipped with 46 Polaris business class and 22 Premium Plus seats. The plane choice was a way to reach a luxury customer customer looking to start their holiday in Marrakesh in the plane.

Along with the new Morocco route, United is also launching a flight between Houston (IAH) and Colombia's Medellín on Oct. 27 as well as a route between Tokyo and Cebu in the Philippines on July 31 — the latter is known as a "fifth freedom" flight in which the airline flies to the larger hub from the mainland U.S. and then goes on to smaller Asian city popular with tourists after some travelers get off (and others get on) in Tokyo.

United's network expansion includes new 'fifth freedom' flight

In the fall of 2023, United became the first U.S. airline to fly to the Philippines with a new Manila-San Francisco flight. It has expanded its service to Asia from different U.S. cities earlier last year. Cebu has been on its radar amid growing tourist interest in the region known for marine parks, rainforests and Spanish-style architecture.

With the summer coming up, United also announced that it plans to run its current flights to Hong Kong, Seoul, and Portugal's Porto more frequently at different points of the week and reach four weekly flights between Los Angeles and Shanghai by August 29.

"This is your normal, exciting network planning team back in action," Quayle told travel website The Points Guy of the airline's plans for the new routes.

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